Higher Midterm Chemistry Review

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1 Biochemistry (Ch 19, 20.3)

1.1 Biomolecules

1.1.1 Macromolecule Biomacromolecule (the main examination contents of biomolecules)

1. Protein (Protein)
2. Structural characteristics polymer, and its monomer is ```````amino acid``” (amino acid)
3. Function: Energy/Structure/Functional Material
4. ``````````: A C is connected to a Carboxyl" (hydroxyl), Hydrogen Atom" (H), Amino Group``” (amino) and a Variable sidechain“ (R).So it is ```carboxylic acids````
5. Condensation reaction form peptide bond (peptide bond) together to form Protein
6. The properties of amino acids are determined by R``. Different Rs have different properties (reasons: Carboxyl and `` Amino Group are both condensed through Condensation reaction).Different ````amino acidsconnected together have different spatial structures, resulting in differentprotein````` with different properties.
7. Commonality: ````Denaturation``` (deactivation): The third and fourth-level structure (spatial structure) changes
8. Most properties (function): biological catalysts (catalysis)—enzymes (enzymes, must be macromolecules): protein catalyst.
9. Features: It has strong specificity, high efficiency, and strict environmental requirements.
10. “Lock and Key Model”.
11. Key words: ```substrate````” (substrate): the object that is catalyzed; active site“ (active site): where the place where the substrate and enzyme combine (key teeth)
12. Protein as energyuse process: Protein - straightening - hydrolysis - remove the amino group - respiration
13. Common examples:
14. protein```: Hemoglobin``` (hemoglobin)
15. `````````: ````Glycine``` (Glycine, the simplest structure)
16. Carbohydrate (Sugar)
17. Structural features: H and O are linked in a ratio of 2:1 on each carbon atom, so not all saccharides are carbohydrate
18. Function: Structure/Energy Matter
19. Category:
20. Monosaccharide``" (monosaccharide) (not a biological macromolecule): It has a simple structure and is a monomer, which can be directly absorbed by the human body, such as glucode" (glucose), ```fructose“ (fructose), ```ribose``” (ribose) and ```` desoxyribose.
21. Disaccharide “[disaccharide”” (not a biological macromolecule): consists of two “monosaccharides”” combination, such as “saccharose””
22. polysaccharide (polysaccharide) (biomacromolecules): It is composed of multiple monosaccharide````, such as strach, glycogen``” (animal starch/glycogen, the main storage of energy substances in animals), `````` cellulose, but cannot be absorbed by the human body).
23. Lipid (lipid)
24. It has no fixed structural characteristics and is not a general term for biological macromolecules of Carbohydrate/Protein/Nuclear acid.Less O and more CH (high energy density)
25. Function: Structure/Energy/Function
26. Common lipids
27. Triglyceride(fat) (triglyceride): the basic form of fat.The formation process is Glycerol“ + 3 Fatty Acid“ (fatty acid) is changed to Triglycoride + 3H₂O through condensation reaction, which is ester (lipid).
28. ```````”steroid” (3 6C rings and one 5C ring) forms `````”cholesterol”” (cholesterol) by combining it, which can be used as a signaling molecule (function)
29. ```phospholipid```` (phospholipid) (phosphoric acid) + 2 fatty acid (fatty acid), an important component of the cell membrane (phospholipid bilayer)
30. Nuclear acid (nuclear acid)
31. Structural characteristics: It is a polymer, and its monomer is nucleotide (nucleotide)
32. Function: Functional structure (storing genetic information)
33. ``nucleotide```:
34. Structural characteristics: phosphate group (phosphate) +sugar“ (sugar) +```nitrogen-containing base``” (alkaline nitrogen-containing residue).When forming a polymer, OH in the phosphate group and H in sugar pass through condensation reaction polymerization
35. There are five common bases (AGCTU)
36. Specific binding: A-T (DNA) A-U (RNA) G-C (regardless of DNA or RNA)

1.1.2 Small biological molecules

1. Vitamine: Organic, a substance that cannot be synthesized by monophysites and can only be obtained through eating.It is divided into two categories: water-soluble (water-soluble, B/C)/fat-soluble (oil-soluble, A/D/K, etc.)
2. coenzyme“ (coenzyme): Organic, many vitamins are coenzyme.Such as NAD/FAD
3. Water and inorganic salts

1.2 Respiration````(Respiration) & Fermentation```

• Purpose: Turn energy that cannot be directly utilized by organisms into energy that can be directly utilized (ATP)
• ATP-One of the P can only provide energy to the cells when it is broken-ADP-respiration (respiration/fermentation)

1.2.1 Respiration

1. Total reaction equation: Organic + O₂ –> CO₂ + Energy + H₂O
2. Process
3. Glycolysis: glucose (glucose)-> 2 pyruvate (pyruvate), net 2ATP (2ATP expands C₆12O₆12O₆ and “breaks apart” to get 4ATP)
4. ```Krebs Cycle````: pyruvate -> 3 CO₂, NAD⁺ becomes NADH, FAD becomes FADH₂
5. Electron transport chain (ETC) (electron transmission chain): NADH becomes NAD in oxygen⁺, FADH₂ becomes FAD in oxygen (similar to hydrogen burning in oxygen), producing nearly 30 ATP, and is the main source of energy acquisition in organisms
6. Features: aerobic process, releases a lot of energy, and completely reacts (completely reaction)

1.2.2 Fermentation

1. Process
2. Glycolysis: glucose (glucose)-> 2 pyruvate (pyruvate), net 2ATP (2ATP expands C₆12O₆12O₆ and “breaks apart” to obtain 4ATP)

   From the energy synthesis aspect, but pyruvate is toxic and needs to be turned into a non-toxic substance. There are two ways to do this

     1.````Lactin acid fermentation```: Turn pyruvate into lactin acid (lactic acid), and most of the higher biological bacteria can do it)

     2. ````Alcoholic fermentation```: Turn pyruvate into alcohol (alcohol) + CO₂, and some prokaryotes are carried out.

2. Features: anaerobic process, release less energy, incomplete reaction, faster speed

1.2.3 The differences and similarities of the two

1. Similarities:
2. The same purpose: convert the energy in glucose into ATP;
3. The first stage (glycolysis) is the same
4. Differences:
5. ``````````: Oxygen consumption (```````, aerobic, a higher efficiency, but slower (it takes a long time to perform a respiration)
6. ``````````: anaerobic (``````, less efficient, but faster (short time for fermentation)

1.3 ``Photosynthesis``` [Photosynthesis]

1. Purpose: Convert solar energy (photo) into biological (chemical) energy
2. Total reaction equation: CO₂+Solar energy -> glucose + O₂
3. Process
4. Light reaction: Prepare ATP (ADP+P -> ATP), prepare NADPH (NADP+ -> NADPH), oxygen is a by-product (you can understand the specific process and do not focus on it)
5. Photosynthesis II: Photons change H₂O into H⁺, e^- (high-energy electrons), O.Among them: O combines O to produce O₂ as a by-product, e^- (high-energy electrons) charge ADP (change ADP+P into ATP) into e^- (low-energy electrons)
6. Photosynthesis I: Photons charge e^- (low-energy electrons) and combine with H⁺, NADP⁺ to form NADPH
7. ```Calvin cycle (Dark reactionreaction)```` (Kelvin cycle/dark reaction): Calvin cycle forms 1 high-energy multi-electron tricarbon structure, and completes two times to form a high-energy six-carbon structure (glucose).In this process, ATP->ADP+P (energy supply), NADPH->NADP⁺ (electronic supply) (you can understand the specific process and do not focus on it)
8. Three times【CO₂ + C₅ -> C₆ (unstable)-> 2 C₃ (low energy, less electrons)-> 2 C₃ (high energy, multiple electrons, from ATP and NADPH)】-> 6 C₃ -> C₃ (high energy product) + 3 C₅ (ATP becomes ADP+P)
9. Significance: Photosynthesis refers to the main source of energy of an object, such as the entire ecosystem providing energy (so the ultimate source of energy is solar energy)
10. Key words: chloroplast“ (chloroplast, the place of photosynthesis), ```chlorophyll``” (chlorophyll, a substance, a catalyst necessary for photosynthesis)

2 Elemental Chemistry (Ch 8)

• Focus mainly on the conclusion and understand the reasons.

2.1 Main group element

• The main content is the commonality of a main family. The details of specific individual elements are not subject to focus on the details, but only focus on the focus.However, the sublimation of iodine in Na, Mg, and Al hydroxides will be focused on the basicity of Na, Mg, and Al hydroxides, because related experiments have been conducted.

2.1.1 Commonality

1. Group 1 (```alkali metals``, alkali metals): The outermost electronic structure ns¹, the common price is +1.Except H, it is silver-white, tough, soft, and has strong reactive elements (elastic loss and strong metallicity).React with water to form an alkaline solution, such as:
   $$2Na(s) + 2H_2 O(l) → 2NaOH(aq) + H_2(g)$$
2. Group 2 (```alkaline earth metal``, alkaline earth metal): The outermost electronic structure ns², the common price is +2.
3. Group 13: The outermost electronic structure ns²np¹, the common price is +3.
4. Group 14: The outermost electron structure ns²np² is relatively stable, with a half-full peripheral area, and prefers to share electrons with other atoms rather than gains and losses electrons. The common price is +4, and it is rare to have -4. In theory, the oxidation number can range from +4 to -4.
5. Group 15: The outermost electronic structure ns²np³, theoretically, the oxidation number can range from +5 to -3
6. Group 16: The outermost electronic structure ns²np⁴, the common price is -2, and sometimes +6. Theoretically, the oxidation number can range from +6 to -2
7. Group 17 (hylogenes, halogen element): the outermost electronic structure ns²np⁵, the common price is -1, and the theoretical oxidation number can range from -1 to +7.They all have certain solubleness and have extremely strong electron-catching ability.
8. X₂ both have oxidizing properties “[oxidizing properties, ability to seize electrons”, and the shelding effect is as low as possible.The change of electronic attraction
9. HX is all acidic and is becoming more and more acidic (because they are covalent bonds, the longer the length and the smaller the force, the easier it is to release H).Transformation of the atomic scale
10. AgX is neither soluble in water nor soluble in calculations, and its solubility gradually decreases (molecular polarity weakens, and chemical bonds change from ironic bond to covalent bond).The EN value changes (the chemistry bonds change)
11. Group 18 (```noble gases``, inert gas): outermost electronic structure ns²np⁶, stable structure, usually not reacting, as a protective gas

2.1.2 Transcendent

	Get and loss electrons	EN value	Metal properties	Atomic size
From left to right	Get electronic capacity increases	increase	decrease	decrease
From right to left	Electronic capacity weakens	Effective	Increase	Increase

• Ion radius: small cations and large anion (the cations are one layer of electrons less than the genus, the anion increases electrons than the genus, and the repulsion increases)
• Hydroxide acid-base: The stronger the metallicity, the more alkaline it is, and the stronger the non-metallicity, the more acid it is (the stronger the metallicity, the stronger the electron loss ability, the easier it is to release OH instead of H)

2.1.3 Na, Mg, Al hydroxide alkaline strength

• Because the strength of alkalinity is related to metallicity, the stronger the metallicity, the stronger the alkalinity, and the stronger the metallicity means volatile electrons.

2.2 Transition elements

1. Overall, the melting point is higher than the melting point of the main family element (except period 12) (filling the inner layer of electrons, which has a strong mutual attraction, and is probably the strongest at the fifth/sixth time (electron spin))
2. The atomic radius also gradually decreases from left to right, but the reduction is smaller than the trend in the main family, because filling the inner orbit will increase the repulsion on the outer layer.
3. Three special sets of transition elements
4. ```iron triad:```` iron cobalt nickel, high melting point, large hardness and magnetic (also called ferrous metal)
5. platinum group (platinum group element): There are six elements in the two lines below the iron triad.Rare, can be used as a catalyst, precious metal.
6. coinage elements: Copper, silver and gold, chemical properties are relatively stable

2.3 Inner-transition elements

1. Once called rare earth element, from the f layer or filling electrons

3 Thermal calculations (Ch 10, 11)

3.1 The Kinetic Theory of Matter

3.1.1 Physical Behavior of Matter

1. ``Brownian motion```: The physical phenomenon of continuous and irregular movement of tiny objects.Pay attention to distinguishing it from molecular thermal motion. Describing the object is not a microscopic particle, but a macro example of a smile.The reason is that the smaller the object, the more obvious the object is to be impacted by the adjacent molecules (the surrounding molecules are more likely to impact the object in one direction at the same time).

2. Solid (solid, especially crystal) motion model: the relative structural units between particles are fixed, and each microscopic particle has a relatively certain position, resulting in a certain shape on the macroscopic level.This structural unit is called crystal lattice.Large Model

3. ``liquid```(liquid) motion model: microscopic movable positions lead to macroscopic shapeless, but have relatively accurate volume.All the liquid can be displaced and splashed. The liquid boundary molecules require a large amount of energy to produce liquid and are not easy to get out (evaporation is a macroscopic phenomenon, but the efficiency is low).Magnetic ball model

4. ````gas`` (gas) motion model: it has fluidity, no exact volume, the intermolecular interaction force cannot be constrained, and the kinetic energy is very strong.

5. ideal gas model - not sticky or occupying (** is not a specific gas, just a model**)

6. Intermolecular is elastic collision, without energy loss (required: intermolecular attraction is almost negligible and not sticky).

7. The volume of gas molecules itself is negligible (not taken into account).

8. Gas pressure: The gas continuously hits the container wall without regularity

9. Movement model of other substances

10. ```Amorphous solid```` (amorphous): The lattice is incomplete or the arrangement is not neatly (such as: glass).Microscopic disorder leads to no exact melting point in the macroscopic.

11. liquid crystals [liquid crystals]: Some microscopic particles are bound only, while others do not.The lattice is stretched on one or both sides, usually rectangular or spindle-shaped, and is mostly used on electronic display screens.

12. plasma (plasma): an ionized gas, charged and can conduct electricity.

3.1.2 Energy and Changes of state

1. Temperature measures the average kinetic energy of an object, which is in a positive proportional relationship. The higher the temperature, the greater the average kinetic energy.
2. The minimum temperature is 0K, and K is Kalvin scale (Kelvin temperature).0K is absolute zero, -273.15 degrees Celsius.Conversion method:
   $$ T/K = T/^{\circ}C+273.15 $$
3. Molecular kinetic energy is related to mass/temperature (when thin, it mainly depends on temperature, and when dense, it mainly depends on mass). The higher the mass/temperature, the greater the molecular kinetic energy.The average kinetic energy of microscopic particles at the same temperature is the same, but the rates are different (because the molecular mass is different).
4. Changes in matter states
5. ````evaporation```: on the liquid surface
6. Related factors
7. Increase the temperature of the liquid, and the surface molecules have sufficient kinetic energy to escape from the interaction force between molecules (so the higher the temperature, the more kinetic energy increases, the higher the escape speed, the more likely the number of ions increases, and it is easier to evaporate) *** Increase ratio***
8. Increase the surface area and increase the number of particles, satisfy the increase of particles in the same proportion *** Increase the cardinality***
9. The surface velocity increases to avoid irregular movement of gas molecules after evaporation (liquefaction) and liquid (blow with dry wind)
10. vapor pressure: The pressure of the gas when evaporation and liquefaction reach equilibrium.For the same liquid, the higher the temperature, the greater the vapor pressure.
11. Boiling Point: The temperature when the vapor pressure of the liquid is equal to the pressure on its surface.The vapor pressure exceeds the atmospheric pressure and causes the company to be imbalanced and boiling.
12. To increase the external pressure, higher vapor pressure is required to exceed it, and SARS increases.
13. Add impurities such as salt to the water, covering the gas-liquid interface, the surface base is reduced, the evaporation rate is reduced, the vapor pressure is reduced, and when it rises to 100 degrees Celsius, it cannot exceed 1 atm, and the boiling point increases.
15. condensation (liquefaction): The process in which the particles of the gas shrink and thus gather together to form a liquid.Vaporization counter-process.
16. ````deposition``` (Ninghua): Nebula is the process in which the distance between gas particles shrinks to a very small extent and thus gathers together to form a solid.The counter-process of sublimation.

3.2 Gas

3.2.1 Gas pressure (atmospheric pressure)

1. Cause of gas pressure: The gas particles move irregularly and continuously hit the container wall, causing pressure, which is related to temperature and number of gas particles.
2. Measurement methods: Barometer``" (mercury pressure gauge) and Pressure gauge" (pneumatic pressure valve).Pressure gauge measures relative air pressure, ```abolute pressure````` the gauge pressure```+ the barometric pressure````” (atmospheric pressure + number)
3. Common units: 1 atm = 101.3 kPa = 760 mmHg = 14.7 psi (pobs/square inch, this unit does not take any test)

3.2.2 Gas Law

• Gas ​​state parameters: Parameters of certain aspects of the uncle’s gas, such as temperature.Can’t change alone, always coordinated

1. Boyle's Law: Air pressure is inversely proportional to volume.When the temperature remains unchanged, the greater the air pressure, the smaller the volume

$$ (pV)_{T,n}=C(T,n)$$

2. ``Charles’ Law```: Temperature is proportional to volume.When the air pressure remains unchanged, the higher the temperature, the larger the volume
   $$(\frac{V}{T})_{P,n}=C(P,n)$$

3. Combined Gas Law: The combination of Boyle’s Law and Charles’ Law

$$(\frac{pV}{T})_n=C(n)$$

4. The Law of Combining Gas Volumes: Volume is proportional to the total amount of molecules.Isothermal and isopressurized, increase the number of gas molecules and increase the volume of gas.$$(\frac{V}{n})_{T,p}=C(T,p)$$

5. Standard temperature and pressure[STP): 0 degrees Celsius (273.17K) + 1atm

6. Avogadro's principle: Under isothermal and isopressurized, the volume of the gas is certain and the number of molecules is certain.

7. Ideal Gas Law (Ideal Gas Law)

$$pV=nRT$$, where R is the gas constant, equal to the Avogadro constant multiplied by the Boltzmann constant

3.3 Stoichiometric calculations

1. mole (mole): unit of quantity, 6.02*10²³.1g=6.02*10²³amu
2. molar mass(molar mass): one mole of pure mass of the substance
3. amount of substance[quantity of substance): $$ n=\frac{m}{M}$$, where n`` is ``amount of substance``, ``m``mass``" (mass, unit g), Mmolar mass“ (molar mass, unit g·mol^-1
4. ```molar volume```` (molar volume): Any gas volume under STP is 22.4L
5. Theoretical and actual output value: $$precent\ yield = (\frac{Actual\ yield}{Theoretical\ yield})\times 100%$$

3.3.1 Calculation format requirements

1. Column principle formula (first list the formula used)
2. Make equations (list the equations that meet the question according to the requirements of the question)
3. Solve the equation (find out the unknown quantity that needs to be found in the equation, and solve it first by letter operation)
4. Data generation (using data with units based on the solved equation)
5. Export the unit (the unit of the final result is first based on the unit of the amount substituted)
6. Extract the answer (calculate the final answer based on the value of the substituted quantity, pay attention to the change of the numerical value during unit conversion, and retain two decimal places at the end (in the first year of high school) for sure)